Subordinate Clauses

PURPOSE SENTENCES.

There are three main ways of expressing purpose:

1. With TO + INFINITIVE (“so as to” and “in order to” are also possible instead of “to”, but they are rather formal. In negative sentences we normally use “in order not to” or “so as not to”). This construction is used to say a person’s purpose – why somebody does something.

E.g.:

The government puts up taxes to get more money from us.

I turned off the TV in order not to awake my mother.

They called a meeting so as to hear everyone’s opinion.

What do you want my typewriter for? To type a letter.

If there is a different subject we have to use the construction “for + subject + to”

E.g.: I have saved a lot of money for my parents to buy a house.

2. With a clause introduced by SO + THAT (we often use a modal verb like “can”, “could”, “will”, “would”, “needn’t”, etc.) This kind of clauses are used when we want to introduce a new subject (Para que X pueda…).

E.g.:

Ships carry lifeboats so that the crew can escape if the ship sinks.

He spoke slowly so that they would understand him.

A purpose clause can also be introduced by “in case” to talk about things we do in order to be ready or safe because something else might happen (por si…)

E.g.: I’ll take an umbrella in case it rains.

3. With FOR + GERUND. This construction is used to talk about the purpose or function of a thing.

E.g.:

Schools are for learning.

A drill is a machine for making holes.

What is this brush for? It’s for cleaning typewriters (with)

EXERCISES

1. COMBINE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF SENTENCES USING “TO + INFINITIVE” (use “so as” and “in order to” where necessary)

a. I am buying paint. I want to paint my hall door.

b. He tied a knot in his handkerchief. He hoped that this would remind him to take the train.

c. He left his rifle outside. He didn’t want to frighten his wife.

d. They got up very early. They wanted to get to the top of the hill before sunrise.

e. He rang the bell. He wanted to tell us that dinner was ready.

f. He was playing very softly. He didn’t want to disturb anyone.

g. He sent his children to their aunt’s house. He wanted to have some peace.

h. He didn’t tell her he was going up in the spacecraft. He didn’t want to alarm her.

2. JOIN THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF SENTENCES USING THE EXPRESSION OF PURPOSE INDICATED IN BRACKETS.

a. The column was built in 1902. It was meant to commemorate Boadicea. (to)

b. Modern aeroplanes are specially designed. They help people to travel in comfort. (so that)

c. Cromwell founded a modern army. He wanted to defeat the Royalists.

d. John Evelyn wrote his Diary in 1666. The aim was that future generations should know about the Great Fire. (so that)

e. I’ll open the door. Then you can see what’s inside. (for… to)

f. The British had a large navy. The purose was to control their Empire. (so that)

g. They bought some champagne. They wanted to celebrate the end of the course. (in order to)

h. He booked a ticket for the performance. He didn’t want to stand in a queue. (so as)

i. He sent them to university. He wanted them to have a good education. (so that)

j. I’ve left her a note. I want her to know where to meet us. (so that)

3. COMPLETE THESE SENTENCES, INDICATING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE OBJECTS NAMED.

a. He wanted to sell me a special knife…………………………………………..(cut carpets)

b. I tried to show the little girl that walls are not ………………………………………….. (draw on)

c. Can I help you? – yes, I want one of those things ………………………………………….. (staple paper).

d. In England houses are …………………………………………..(live in), but in Spain they’re sometimes only ………………………………………….. (eat and sleep)

e. Every office should have a machine ………………………………………….. (make copies)

4. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH.

a. Mucha gente viaja a Londres para ver Picadilly.

b. Le presté mi libro para que pudiera estudiar más.

c. Levantaron una estatua para conmemorar a Nelson.

d. Trabajaron deprisa para que la fábrica pudiese estar terminada pronto.

e. Abre la puerta para que el perro pueda salir (for … to).

f. Apagó la luz para no gastar electricidad.

g. Te daré mi número de teléfono para que puedas llamarme.

h. Me quité los zapatos para no despertar a mis padres.

CONTRAST

1. ALTHOUGH – THOUGH – IN SPITE OF – DESPITE.

Contrast clauses introduce two contradictory ideas.

e.g. We didn’t have a lot of money We bought some expensive souvenirs.

We can say:

- Although we didn’t have a lot of money, we bought some expensive souvenirs.

- In spite of not having a lot of money, we bought some expensive souvenirs.

- Despite not having a lot of money, we bought a lot of expensive souvenirs.

Notice that:

ü After although (or even though, which means the same, but is more emphatic), we use subject + verb. E.g. Although / Even though he’s ninety years old, he is very strong.

ü Though means the same, too, but it is less formal and it can appear at the end of the sentence. E.g. The house isn’t very nice, I like the garden though.

ü After In spite of and despite (which mean the same),We use a gerund, a noun or a pronoun. E.g. In spite of his being very old, he is very strong. // Despite the cold weather, she didn’t take a coat.

EXERCISES

1.COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH ALTHOUGH OR IN SPITE OF

a. …………………… all my careful plans, a lot of things went wrong.

b. …………………… I had planned everything carefully, a lot of things went wrong.

c. I love music …………………… I can’t play any musical instrument.

d. …………………… being very tired, we carried on walking.

e. The heating was full on, …………………… this, the house was still cold.

f. Ken decided to give up his job …………………… I advised him not to.

2.REWRITE THESE SENTENCES WITHOUT CHANGING THE MEANING.

a. Although he’s got an English name, he is in fact German (despite).

b. In spite of her injured foot, she managed to get into the village. (although)

c. I decided to accept the job although, the salary was low (in spite of).

d. We went to visit her although she was very unpleasant (despite).

e. In spite of not having eaten for 24 hours, we weren’t hungry (even though).

3.USE THE WORDS IN BRACKETS TO MAKE A SENTENCE WITH THOUGH AT THE END.

a. She’s very nice, (don’t like / husband). I ………………………………………………………………

b. It’s quite war, (a bit windy). It …………………………………………………………………………...

c. We didn’t like the food, (ate). We ………………………………………………………………………

d. Edna sings very badly, (play / piano / well enough). She ……………………………………………

2. WHILE – WHEREAS.

We can also introduce a contrast using while / whereas, for example, when comparing places, people, etc.

E.g. He is quiet and shy, while / whereas his sister is lively and talkative.

EXERCISE

1.COMPARE SALLY AND PETER. JOIN EACH SENTENCE IN A WITH THE MOST SUITABLE IN B AND THEN MAKE SENTENCES USING WHILE/WHEREAS.

A	B
1. Sally likes hard work	Peter prefers classical music.
2. Sally likes jazz and pop music	Peter prefers staying at home.
3. She likes going out a lot	He can be rather mean.
4. She’s very practical	He is quite lazy.
5. She’s very generous	He is quite idealistic.

3. HOWEVER – NEVERTHELESS.

These two words mean also but, on the other hand. We can use them with two sentences. They go between commas. E.g.:

She said she wouldn’t change her job, however, she may change her mind.

She was quite ill. Nevertheless, she went to school.

EXERCISE.

1.REWRITE THESE SENTENCES USING HOWEVER.

a. Despite the houses being very expensive, a lot of people buy them.

b. Although he was feeling ill, he stayed outside in the cold weather.

c. People continue smoking, even though they know the dangers.

d. In spite of her never taking any kind of exercise, she’s quite fit and healthy.

4. ON THE ONE HAND … ON THE OTHER HAND

They are used to show two contradictory ideas. The usually indicate that one idea has advantages and the other one hasn’t. they are used between commas. E.g.

- On the one hand, the city offers lots of entertainment. On the other hand, it’s very noisy.

- The lecture was very boring. On the other hand, it was very short.

5. ON THE CONTRARY

It is used to contradict what it was said before. E.g. “I thought you liked Italian food” – “On the contrary,, I hate it”

EXERCISES

1.FILL IN THE GAPS WITH A SUITABLE CONNECTOR INDICATING CONTRAST.

a. I won’t forgive you …………………… your apology.

b. …………………… she was ill, she went to work.

c. Their car broke down, ……………………, they managed to get to the garage.

d. This child is very independent …………………… his young age.

e. Bill is rather clever, …………………… his brother is just average.

f. It was hot and humid, ……………………, they really enjoyed their holiday.

g. “Wasn’t the concert last night terrific?” – “……………………, I found it quite boring”

h. She won’t go to the theatre ……………………she has a free ticket.

i. …………………… the low price, I didn’t buy the suit.

j. I can’t speak Japanese, ……………………, I managed on my trip to Tokyo.

2. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH.

a. Aunque lleva viviendo muchos años en España, no sabe hablar español.

b. No pudimos conseguir un asiento a pesar de que llegamos pronto.

c. Siguió trabajando a pesar de no sentirse bien.

d. Aunque no estudió todo lo que pudo, aprobó los exámenes.

e. Por un parte, la playa es divertida, por otra, no me gusta la arena.

f. Este culebrón es muy interesante, mientras que el otro es bastante aburrido.

g. Quiero comprarme un coche nuevo, sin embargo, no me lo puedo permitir.

h. Creía que te gustaba la música clásica – Al contrario, la odio.

REASON

BECAUSE – BECAUSE OF – DUE TO – OWING TO – AS – SINCE.

Adverbial clauses of reason answer the question Why. We often give reason by using “joining words” or conjunctions.

Notice that:

- We use because with a clause. E.g.

o He married her because she was beautiful.

o Because she was beautiful, he married her. (notice the comma)

- With nouns we use because of, due to¸ or owing to. E.g.

o We stayed at home because of the weather.

o The concert was cancelled due to the low ticket sales.

o Owing to the heavy traffic in cities, the authorities are improving the rail system.

- As – Since introduce a clause and are used at the beginning of it. E.g.

o As she was beautiful, he married her. (como era guapa…)

o Since it’s a public holiday, you won’t find many shops open.

(This since is not the same as in I’ve been working here since 1992)

EXERCISES

1.REWRITE THESE SENTENCES USING THE WORDS GIVEN IN BRACKETS.

a. It was raining so I didn’t water the plants (since)

b. There were no buses, so we had to take a taxi (because)

c. It was getting dark, we decided to stop until the following day (since)

d. I’ll have to buy a map, I don’t know the area (as)

e. The manager is out, his assistant signs the letters (since)

f. They gave it to me because it was valueless (because of)

g. She was nicknamed “the mermaid” because she could swim so well (because of)

h. The meat was cooked, I took it out of the oven (as)

i. I’ve given your old jacket away. It was too tight for you (because)

j. Paris is well known around the world, it is so beautiful (because of)

2.TRANSLATE THESE SENTENCES.

a. Como es tan tarde, nos deberíamos ir a casa.

b. Dejé el periódico en el tren porque ya lo había leído.

c. Debido al tráfico, cada vez más gente toma el metro.

d. Puesto que estaba tan ocupada, yo escribí a máquina las cartas.

RESULT

We can describe results with:

1. SO – AS A RESULT – THEREFORE

E.g.

It was raining a lot so we didn’t go out.

It was raining a lot, as a result, we didn’t go out.

It was raining a lot, therefore, we didn’t go out.

Notice that:

- We use so (=and so), as a result and therefore before a clause (así que…). E.g. He was late so he ran to the station.

- Therefore is more formal, and it is used most frequently in written English. E.g. he had to phone his wife, therefore, he asked if he could use my cellular phone.

EXERCISES

1.CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWERS.

a. As / As a result it was such a beautiful day, we decided to have a picnic.

b. It was his birthday because / so he decided to buy him a present.

c. As a result / Since all the seats on the train were taken, we had to stand.

d. The banks were closed and as a result / because we couldn’t get any money.

e. I didn’t find the book very interesting and so / as I didn’t finish it.

f. We couldn’t drive across the bridge as a result / because it was closed.

g. She had the best qualifications and she as / therefore got the job.

2. SO…THAT // SUCH …THAT

E.g.

It was such a cold day that we decided not to go out.

It was so cold that we decided not to go out.

Notice that:

- We use so … that with an adjective or an adverb. E.g. Their dog was so tired that no one dared to come near it.

- We find expressions like so much / so many + nouns + that. E.g.

o There were so many that that we couldn’t walk.

o There was so much snow that we couldn’t walk.

- We use such … that with a noun.

o Singular countable à such a / an. E.g.

§ It was such a lovely day that we went to the seaside.

§ It was such an interesting book that I couldn’t put it down.

o Singular uncountable à such. E.g. It was such marvellous weather that we didn’t want to leave.

o Plural àsuch. E.g. There were such enormous waves that we were able to go surfing.

EXERCISES:

1.COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH SO (MUCH / MANY), SUCH (A / AN)

a. The house was …………………… expensive that we couldn’t afford it.

b. There were …………………… mistakes in the letter that the secretary had to type it again.

c. The milk tasted …………………… horrible that we had to throw it away.

d. There were …………………… people on the beach that we went back to the hotel.

e. His brother ate …………………… seafood that he was ill for two days.

f. We had …………………… lovely time in Spain that we’re going to go back again next year.

g. There was …………………… heavy rain that we decided not to stay there.

h. They were …………………… good photographs that I asked him which camera he’d used.

i. …………………… water got into the boat that it sank.

2.JOIN EACH PAIR OF SENTENCES USING SO / SUCH … THAT

a. He’s got a very good memory. He never needs to write anything down.

b. It was a very warm evening. We had dinner outside in the garden.

c. Our neighbour’s party was very noisy. We couldn’t sleep.

d. He was very nervous. He couldn’t eat anything.

e. The restaurant was crowded. They couldn’t find anywhere to sit down.

f. We were all having a good time. We didn’t want to stop.

3.WRITE SENTENCES USING SUCH INSTEAD OF SO OR VICE VERSA.

a. The road is so narrow that it is difficult for two cars to pass each other.

b. The weather was so warm that I didn’t need a coat.

c. He has such big feet that he has difficulty finding shoes to fit him.

d. Tom’s English is so good that he’s got an excellent job.

e. The film as so interesting that I went to see it again.

f. It was such a cold day that I couldn’t feel the ends of my fingers.

g. The fish was so large that it took two men to carry it.

h. Maria’s marks are so good that she’s thinking of going to university.

i. The fire was so terrible that the whole house was destroyed.

j. The car was so old that nobody wanted to buy it.

4.TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH.

a. Hacía tanto frío que el Támesis se heló.

b. Era tan buena actriz que ganó un premio.

c. Nadaba tan mal que casi se ahogó.

d. Michael Jordan es un jugador de baloncesto tan bueno que su equipo gana todos los partidos.

e. Pinta tan bien que algún día será famoso.

f. Eran unas preguntas tan difíciles que nadie sabía las respuestas.

TIME CLAUSES

Time clauses say when something happens, happened or will happen.

1. Present Time Clauses

- Mary takes her umbrella with her when it rains.

- Arthur has his supper as soon as he gets home.

- I turn off the radio whenever they play pop.

2. Past Time Clauses

- I turned the TV on when I got home.

- Mr Steele went into his office as soon as he arrived.

- Mary had already left before Arthur arrived.

- Mary got the picnic ready while Arthur was tying the boat up.

3. Future Time Clauses

- I’m going to have a bath when I get home tonight.

- I’ll do my homework before I go to bed.

- Arthur can’t go home until he has finished work.

- We’re going out as soon as we’ve had dinner.

Notice that we normally use the present simple (or present perfect), but NEVER the future.

EXERCISES

1. All sentences are about the future. Write the correct tense of the verbs in brackets.

a. I ………………………. (phone) you when I ………………………. (get) home from work.

b. I want to see Margaret before she ………………………. (go) out.

c. We’re going on holiday. I ………………………. (tell) you about it when we ………………………. (come) back.

d. We must do something soon before it ………………………. (be) too late.

e. I don’t want to go out without you. I ………………………. (wait) until ………………………. (be) ready.

f. I’d like to play tennis tomorrow if the weather ………………………. (be) nice.

g. I’m going out now. If anybody ………………………. (phone) me while I ………………………. (be) out, can you take the message?

h. Ben looks different now. When ………………………. (see) him again, you ………………………. (not recognize) him.

2. JOIN THESE PAIRS OF SENTENCES WITH THE CONJUNCTIONS IN BRACKETS, MAKING NECESSARY CHANGES.

a. I won’t know if have got into university. I will get my exams results. (until)

b. I’ll give him your message. He will phone. ( as soon as)

c. We should visit the Duty Free Shop. Our flight will be called. (before)

d. You’ll get a surprise. You will open the door. (the moment)

3. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH.

a. Cuando leas esta carta, estaré en Londres.

b. A lo mejor llama Juan cuando esté fuera. Si lo hace, ¿puedes coger el recado?

c. Me voy unos días. Te llamaré cuando vuelva.

d. Cenaremos cuando llame a Kate.

e. Cenaremos cuando haya llamado a Kate.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES – REVISION

1. INSERT A CORRECT CONNECTOR IN THE BLANK SPACES.

a. ………………………. Manchester had not won a match that season, they were not expected to win the following season either.

b. ………………………. we had plenty of time, we didn’t do half the things we had planned to.

c. I’m not going to stop work now. I’ll keep going ………………………. I finish.

d. Peter is an excellent student, ………………………. John seldom opens a book.

e. ………………………. our train was late, we still made it to our destination on time.

f. ………………………. she is much older than I am, she looks younger.

g. ………………………. I was walking around the supermarket, I saw a friend.

h. I was able to walk slowly ……………………….the heavy burden.

i. My friend likes the town ………………………. I like the country.

j. We drove slowly ……………………….the icy roads.

k. Robert had ……………………….awful holiday that he wanted to come home early.

l. We hurried ……………………….be late for the appointment.

m. I’ll take my credit card with me ………………………. I decide to buy something when I’m out.

n. These tests are given in the book ……………………….you can check your progress.

o. We went to a restaurant ……………………….celebrate my birthday.

p. ……………………….having a well-paid job, she never has any money.

q. We had a rainy winter, ………………………., the rice harvest was excellent.

r. I’m furious with him ……………………….he didn’t come to my party.

s. ……………………….he asked me, I told him the whole story.

t. ……………………….people complained that in the end they took the programme off.

u. There was ……………………….dust that we couldn’t see what was happening.

v. ……………………….we had no money for a bus, we had to walk home.

w. They made him redundant……………………….his age.

x. He was tired……………………….he went to bed early.

y. He had changed a lot, ………………………. , I didn’t recognize him.

2. REWRITE THESE SENTENCES USING THE WORDS GIVEN IN BRACKETS.

a. Although the rain was falling heavily, they continued with the football match. (in spite of)

b. Grandma cannot hear what you say because she is very deaf. (so)

c. The girl was so tall that I found it difficult to dance with her. (such)

d. Many rivers have burst their banks because there has been a heavy rainfall. (because of)

e. The driver instructor took Dan onto the main road: he wanted him to get experience in high speed driving. (so that)

f. We couldn’t go to the concert because the tickets were too expensive. (since)

g. In spite of the difficulty of the questions, he answered them all. (although)

h. He forgets to turn on the light every time he leaves. (whenever)

i. I’ve told you this story because I don’t want you to forget the old days. (so that)

j. He is a very energetic man. He never looks tired. (such)

k. As there were a lot of people, they had to open all the doors. (so many)

l. Although we had revised everything a hundred times, everything went wrong. (despite)

m. He left home early. He was afraid of missing the plane. (so as)

n. Some people enjoy city life. Others prefer the quiet of the country. (whereas)

o. Everybody stayed near the fire. The day was very cold. (because of)

3. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH.

a. Aunque duermo muy bien, siempre estoy cansado.

b. A pesar de su riqueza, vivía en la pobreza.

c. Los vestidos eran tan baratos y tan buenos que compré dos.

d. Tengo tantos amigos que nunca me siento solo.

e. Me gustó mucho el concierto a pesar del dolor de muelas.

f. Era una mañana tan fría que tuve que ponerme dos jerseys.

g. Fue al médico para asegurarse de que estaba en forma.

h. Aunque nuestro coche se averió, logramos arreglarlo solos.

i. Siempre se está riendo de mí, sin embargo, lo quiero mucho.

j. Tiene una vida social tan activa que nadie diría que tiene ochenta y cinco años.

k. Abrió la caja para ver lo que había dentro.

l. Se va a comprar una bicicleta para no tener que ir andando a trabajar.

m. El jardín era tan bonito que hicimos una foto.

n. Aunque no tenía dinero en el banco, firmó un cheque.

o. Las inundaciones fueron debidas a las fuertes lluvias en las montañas.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES – REVISION …………………………………………………………………………….KEY

1.

a. as /since

b. although

c. until / till

d. whereas / while

e. although

f. although

g. as / when /while

h. despite / in spite of

i. whereas / while

j. because of / due to / owing to

k. such an

l. so as not to / in order not to

m. in case

n. so that

o. to / in order to / so as to

p. despite / in spite of

q. therefore / as a result

r. because

s. as / since

t. so many

u. so much

v. as / since

w. because of / due to / owing to

x. sp

y. therefore / as a result

2.

a. In spite of the heavy rain, they continued with the football match.

b. Grandma is so deaf that she cannot hear what you say.

c. She was such a tall girl that I found it difficult to dance with her.

d. Many rivers have burst their banks because of the heavy rainfall.

e. The driver instructor took Dan onto the main road so that he would (could) get experience in high speed driving.

f. Since the tickets were too expensive, we couldn’t go to the concert.

g. Although the questions were very difficult, he answered them all.

h. He forgets to turn on the light whenever he leaves.

i. I’ve told you this story so that you won’t forget the old days.

j. He is such an energetic man that he never looks tired.

k. There were so many people that they had to open all the doors.

l. Despite having revised everything a hundred times, everything went wrong.

m. He left home early so as not to miss the plane.

n. Some people enjoy the city, whereas others prefer the quiet of the country.

o. Everybody stayed near the fire because of the cold day.

3.

a. Although I sleep very well, I am always tired.

b. Despite his wealth, he lived in poverty.

c. The dresses were so cheap and so good that I bought two.

d. I have got so many friends that I never feel lonely.

e. I liked the concert very much despite the toothache.

f. It was such a cold morning that I had to wear two pullovers.

g. He went to the doctor to make sure he was fit.

h. Although our car broke down, we managed to fix it by ourselves.

i. He is always making fun of me, however, I love him very much.

j. He has such an active social life that nobody would say he is eighty-five (years old).

k. He opened the box to see what was inside.

l. He’s going to buy a bicycle so as not to have to walk to work.

m. The garden was so beautiful that we took a picture of it.

n. Although he didn’t have any money in the bank, he signed a cheque.

o. The floods were due to the heavy rains in the mountains.